Argument. Men and particularly princes Essay Example for Free

Contention. Men and especially rulers Essay Contention Presentation  â â â â â â â â â â Men and especially rulers should be cautious when settling on their choices and they ought not be worried by the settling on choices that consistently favors their subjects and companions yet they ought to be concerned more on the results of their choices and whether those choices will profit their state. I firmly accept that there ought not be systems and strategies set to be utilized by sovereigns in managing their companions and subjects. This is on the grounds that various circumstances require to be dealt with distinctively since the social orders continues changing and accordingly, rulers ought not follow set strategies and techniques.  â â â â â â â â â â Princes are decided by their subjects through their characteristics which will make their subjects either to adulate them or to accuse them. Be that as it may, it would be exceptionally hard for the sovereigns to satisfy all the characteristics that their subjects anticipate that them should have because of human instinct. In this manner, sovereigns ought to be exceptionally mindful so as to escape from awful notoriety of those indecencies which would cause them to lose the state.  â â â â â â â â â â I concur with the explanation that a quality which is by all accounts an ideals, whenever sought after may wind up destructing the person who chooses to seek after such a quality; while another quality which gives off an impression of being a bad habit, if an individual chooses to seek after such a bad habit may wind up being progressively valuable to such an individual and to the general public. In this way, sovereigns ought to be exceptionally reasonable when settling on choices since a quality which is by all accounts bad habit may wind up being an excellence, and the other way around.  â â â â â â â â â â Princes can be liberal which is by all accounts an ethicalness yet may wind up giving them a terrible notoriety among their subjects. This is on the grounds that such sovereigns perhaps liberal and wind up spending every one of their assets or overburdening their subjects with unreasonable duties and doing everything conceivable so as to the assets. This nature of liberality may give such rulers a terrible notoriety and his liberality may wind up culpable their subjects in this manner abhorring their sovereigns. Likewise through not being liberal may lead them to give off an impression of being a recluse as per their subjects.  â â â â â â â â â â For example, Pope Julius II in spite of the fact that he utilized his liberality to accomplish papacy anyway he chose to end his liberality so as to lessen the consumptions in order to have the option to take up arms. Hence, sovereigns should utilize any excellence, for example, liberality such that won't hurt them. In such manner, rulers ought to abstain from overburdening subjects or getting poor because of their liberality. Likewise, all together for a ruler to abstain from wrecking their standard they ought wouldn't fret being marked as recluses since this would be a key bad habit that would assist them with ruling their subjects.  â â â â â â â â â â Although rulers ought to abstain from being coldblooded and ought to be benevolent however they ought to be extremely mindful so as not to manhandle their leniency. This is on the grounds that being too tolerant might be mishandled which may prompt issue in a state coming about to expanded wrongdoings hence hurting the general public on the loose. For example, in spite of the fact that cesare Borgia was respected unfeeling, he had the option to reestablish request, harmony and solidarity in Romagna through his savagery. Accordingly sovereigns ought wouldn't fret being refereed to be coldblooded in their endeavors to keep their subjects faithful and joined together. It would be a lot more secure for sovereigns to be dreaded than being adored by their subjects. In such manner they ought to effectively guarantee that there is structure, harmony and solidarity in their states regardless of whether it implies taking someone’s life to serve their st ates on the loose. This may result to a portion of their subjects despising them be that as it may, this would be less hurtful to them and furthermore it would valuable to their states on the loose.  â â â â â â â â â â Princes ought not mind much on staying faithful to their obligations to their subjects and in certain conditions the rulers should control their subject’s mind with adroitness if this would be increasingly more secure for them and furthermore if this would be progressively advantageous to their state. Rulers must know about how to manage various circumstances since satisfying their guarantees in certain conditions would carry damage to them and to their subjects. In such circumstances such sovereigns ought to be savvy and expertise to delude their subjects to abstain from satisfying their guarantees where they feel that keeping their words would carry damage to their state or to themselves.  â â â â â â â â â â in such manner, rulers are not required to have all the great characteristics yet it is significant for them to show up as though they have them. This is on the grounds that having those all characteristics and rehearsing every one of them would bring more mischief. For instance, showing up being unwavering, strict, kind, reliable and altruistic among other great characteristics would be fundamental and sovereigns should realize how to rehearse them in various circumstances, in any case, rehearsing every one of them would prompt more mischief than anything as subjects would abuse them to cause issue which may expand the crime percentages which would be destructive to the states. References Machiavelli, NiccoloãÅ"â‚ ¬. The sovereign. Beauty Fourche: NuVision Publications, 2004. Print. Source record

Sociological Theories of Language and Power

Sociological Theories of Language and Power Given that sociological hypotheses are only that-speculations, it is difficult to state that they can adequately clarify or characterize any part of our lives. Be that as it may, sociological hypotheses can assist us with understanding the path in we interface with one another and society in this way expanding our insight and viewpoints. In the accompanying conversation we will take a gander at a portion of the principle sociological points of view. We will at that point take a gander at language as a methods for correspondence and social connection. At long last we will inspect the connection among language and force by investigating mass correspondence and its impact on public activity. Humanism is worried about society, with people in the public eye, with organizations and with its standards and qualities. As Bilton et al state, public activity is a riddle and sociologists spend their expert lives attempting to understand it. (2002 p4) Within humanism, there are a few distinct impacts which influence how scholars disclose or endeavor to clarify social wonders. These incorporate functionalism, strife hypothesis and Marxism among others. Functionalism sees the different pieces of society as interrelated pieces of a total framework. It considers conduct to be being organized and social connections as being designed and intermittent. It additionally underlines the job of significant worth accord inside society. For instance from a functionalist viewpoint, the family structure as a repetitive social unit assumes a significant job in the public eye. The family is the principle mingling office for youngsters and goes about as a settling impact in the public eye by prolife rating the common standards and estimations of society (Haralambos and Holborn 1995, p8-9). In direct complexity, strife hypothesis is worried about social structure as a reason and impression of social disparity. Wallace and Wolf diagram three fundamental presumptions of contention hypothesis. Right off the bat it accept all individuals have fundamental regular interests. Furthermore that force is vital to all connections and thirdly it expect that qualities and thoughts are viewed as weapons utilized by bunches to their greatest advantage as opposed to a method of characterizing society in general (1999, p68). It is like the Marxist point of view of society as working through the central irreconcilable situations between the social gatherings engaged with the creation procedure (1995, p12). Another sociological viewpoint is structuralism, which was firmly impacted by crafted by Sauserre in the late nineteenth and mid twentieth century. Sauserre built up the investigation of phonetics by taking a gander at language as it is organized. As per Sauserre, examining the structures of language implies searching for the guidelines which underlie our discourse. He contended that the importance of words is gotten from the structures of language, not the articles to which they allude. Thusly, which means is made by the contrasts between related ideas which the principles of a language perceive (Giddens 1989, p698-699). The field of semiotics is to a great extent got from Sauserres take a shot at phonetics. The semiotic methodology that significance is situated in the sign, has significant ramifications for how we see culture and language and through these, power. Sauserre depicted semiotics as a science that reviews the life of signs inside a general public. It is worried about significance as something which is socially delivered and recommends that the disentangling procedure of correspondence is as significant as the encoding procedure. In semiotics, which means is gotten from signs through their auxiliary association. Sauserre imagined signs as being comprised of the sound picture, named the signifier and the psychological idea, named the meant. Along these lines signs can vary between people. For instance when one individual in a gathering alludes to a vehicle, everybody would conceptualize a vehicle however every individual vehicle would be totally different. As indicated by Mulholland (1991, p17), language is the instrument by which importance is acknowledged and by which powerful social connection can be made and supported. She includes, language is definitely not an unbiased toolwhenever one encodes something of the world into language one is fitting it into an efficient code which attempts to deliver meaning both paradigmatically (by decision of one thing from a comparative arrangement of things) and syntygmatically (by masterminding decisions into sentence patterns).This can impact how it attempts to speak to both propositional content (the happenings of the world when they become the topic of discourse) and relational substance (the perspectives, job, tone, etc of connections) (Mulholland 1991, p18). Hence language is significantly more than a lot of words and expressions which we use to impart. Furthermore, beside communicated in or composed language, correspondence is likewise accomplished through non-verbal communication, a look or a motion can say every one of that should be said. Quite a bit of our correspondence depends on shared codes and societies. Everyday discussions depend on an information on ourselves and the individuals we are speaking with. Be that as it may, there are numerous variables which impact how we convey. For instance, our crowd, the specific circumstance, the ideal results of the correspondence and shared terms of reference. For instance young people might be open to speaking together about the most recent rap craftsmen and may even receive a portion of their language while their folks may have no clue what they are discussing. This is on the grounds that the guardians are curious about the specific circumstance (rap) of the discussion. Another factor which influences correspondence is the force and relative status of the speakers. Consider for instance being advised to move to one side on an asphalt by a cop. A great many people would conform to the solicitation since the police (as a rule) have an authority gave on them by their uniform. Thus, we are slanted to offer validity to news communicates in light of the fact that we accept that the newsreader has authority and in this way what the individual is revealing to us must be valid. Despite the fact that Eldridge (1993) and others have contended that news is only a social development in any case and as such can't be viewed as novel or unprejudiced, it isn't reality which is built however a similarity to it. (1993 p33) However many contend that the media and the language it utilizes is controlled by the individuals who are in power so as to strengthen and real that power. As indicated by Adorno and Horkheimer (1979) the media is a mechanical framework which is gro unded in monetary force. They contend that through the media, force and social frameworks are duplicated which thus repeat types of social imbalance in which political and monetary circles are inseparably blended (refered to Eldridge 1993, p34). They contend that news as such is only the consequence of what is viewed as significant or appropriate between a select and unrepresentative gathering of representatives, correspondents and authorities. Rather than this a pluralist origination of mass correspondence is that there is such a tremendous progression of messages and pictures that we can pick among them which to accept and which to dispose of. The Marxist reaction to this is while the facts demonstrate that the media consumes a challenged space which has monetary, social and political limitations just as business pressures, these only lead to various examples of mastery and motivation setting. (Eldridge, p36) For instance, Williams has expressed the business character of TV has then to be seen at a few levels: as the creation of projects for benefit in a referred to showcase; as a channel for publicizing; and as a social and political structure legitimately molded by and subject to the standards of an industrialist society, selling both buyer products and a lifestyle dependent on them in an ethos that is without a moment's delay privately produced, by residential capital interests and specialists and globally sorted out b y the prevailing entrepreneur power. (refered to in Fairclough 1995, p43) Mass correspondence is every now and again talked about as far as its impact on audience members/watchers/perusers. Along these lines, it tends to be supposed to be a ground-breaking power in our regular day to day existences. In this manner the language it utilizes likewise has a specific force. The proper language of the newsreader for instance suggests information and authority and we are slanted to confide in this voice. In like manner, the more business a picture turns into, the less we are probably going to confide in it. End Sociological hypotheses, for example, structuralism are helpful in upgrading our comprehension of language and force in the public eye. By looking at contrasting hypotheses of language and of intensity we may not concoct authoritative answers however we are surely progressively educated about the procedures. Force is applied through a wide range of means and language is only one of these. Anyway it is conceivably a persuasive wellspring of intensity and one which is abused at every possible opportunity. This can be seen in numerous features of public activity from governmental issues, financial aspects even religion and mainstream society.

Essay Topics on Kants Work

Essay Topics on Kant's WorkThere are many good essay topics on Kant's work. They provide the best way to deal with the classic philosopher and how to write an essay on his ideas. Topics like his 'Critique of Pure Reason' are always easy to tackle and require some knowledge of philosophy.Because his work remains controversial, there are a number of arguments about what Kant is really saying and what the work means. His most famous work, 'The Critique of Pure Reason', deals with free will and other issues. While this might not be the best topic for an essay on Kant's philosophy, it can provide the writer with a good starting point for a strong argument.This topic is often used in a single paragraph. It usually begins with a definition of free will and its connection to knowledge and goes into what Kant is trying to do with the concept. He does not believe that one must act freely in order to have knowledge, but rather only that one has free will. There are many ways this can be interpr eted, but the basic idea is that it is possible to decide what to do and this makes you a free agent.One common problem with these kinds of subjects is that they get too technical and forget that a good essay must be brief. It needs to be short, simple and understandable. A good topic should make it clear that the writer has an understanding of the topic and that the ideas are interesting and worthwhile.The part of the essay that is least understood by students is the connection between knowledge and the will. We usually treat the two as separate concepts. Kant wanted to bring these two things together. Instead of treating them as separate concepts, he emphasized the importance of understanding both as one concept.Free will is connected to knowledge, but it cannot be knowledge itself. It has no substance, and can therefore be denied or lost. Free will is important because it means that you can be the author of your own actions.Kant also believed that all individuals are born free an d equal. The idea that some people are born smarter or luckier than others is very anti-Kant. He believes that everyone is born equal and that people are equally endowed with the ability to choose.This is an important issue in this country today. While we sometimes give things away for free, we often think that certain gifts are given by fate. This is something that makes a lot of sense when you think about it. Everyone is born to act in certain ways and to do certain things, so that it would be foolish to believe that one cannot make a choice.

Essay about Review over the Paradox of Sitting Bull

In the late 1800’s the Americans viciously forced many Native Americans off their lands all because the federal government wanted the U.S. to expand and obtain Manifest Destiny. The main Native American and tribe that stood against the federal government was Sitting Bull, Chief of the Sioux and entire Lakota nation. He led a large amount of Sioux warriors in many battles against the American government that were fought over the rights and lands of the Lakota nation. He was against the American government and the forceful ways that they took over Indian lands, and therefore he used his strong, spiritual leadership abilities to battle against the American government as well as the U.S army. The author of the biography Sitting Bull and the†¦show more content†¦Colonel Harney and his men then marched to Little Thunder’s camp and surprised the entire camp forcing Little Thunder to surrender 250 of his warriors and men. Even though the camp had surrendered Colone l Harney went back into the camp and killed 86 Sioux, 70 of which were women and children. One of the effects that came from this and Harney’s campaign in 1855 was that he forced the Sioux to sign yet another treaty. This treaty stated that the Sioux tribe would have to surrender all stolen lands as well as surrendering any man that is found guilty of killing a white man. 3) (a) Describe the events leading up to the signing of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. (b) What did the treaty stipulate? (c) Did the Lakotas fully understand its provisions? (a) A tribe called Red Cloud that is a branch of the Lakotas that continued to attack the lands outside their tribal territory. They attacked wagons and stole all the supplies that they could. This triggered a response by the American army, and Colonel Henry B. Carrington led the men that would eventually stop these attacks. With Colonel Carrington leading the attack he ordered Captain William J. Fetterman to acquire the stolen items that were stolen by the tribe. Captain Fetterman, however, felt that he could defeat all Sioux men with a small militia by attacking the Indians in what would be now known today as the militaryShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesdeploy to demarcate historical epochs, the twentieth century does not appear to be a very coherent unit. The beginnings and ends of what we choose to call centuries are almost invariably years of little significance. But there is little agreement over when the twentieth century c.e. arrived, and there were several points both before the year 2000 (the collapse of the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany, the surge of globalization from the mid-1990s) and afterward (9/11, or the globalRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesPrinciples of Management, Human Resources, Strategy, and Organizational Behavior that helps you actively study and prepare material for class. Chapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S. Cameron UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Prentice Hall Boston Columbus IndianapolisRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesdegree of rigour into the process, arguing that rapid change within the environment demands a more strategic approach rather than less. We have also introduced a considerable amount of material designed to reflect some of the areas that have emerged over the past few years and that currently are of growing importance. The most obvious of these are e-marketing, branding, the leveraging of competitive advantage and CRM. 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The challenge is still there to improve it, and with it marketing efficiency and career advancement. Let us then consider what learning insights we can gain, with the benefit of hindsight, from examining these examples of successfulRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pages....................................................................................................... 5 Examples of Good Reasoning............................................................................................................. 14 Review of Major Points ....................................................................................................................... 17 Glossary .................................................................................................

The Impact Of Health Information On Individuals,...

Health information is a fundamental piece of data which represents a person, business, organization, or a community. This data is vital in monitoring and coordination of care for individuals and communities. It not only monitors and coordinates patient care, but reduces costly mistakes and prevent duplication of treatments as well as taking a pivotal role in preserving, securing, and protecting personal health information. Since, this information is extremely essential and sensitive, it must remain secure and safe to prevent frauds and cyber-attacks. First of all, this paper discusses vitality of the health information in regards to individuals, professionals, and organizations along with its benefits to improve overall quality of life. Secondly, it discusses the role of information technology in various aspects of the industry and the what the future holds within IT. Health information is an important source of information and evidence when the services provided are communicated in legal and professional documentation. It is a documentation which is a legal requirement and a record of the beneficiary’ care as well as a communication vehicle between other disciplines and providers. It not only ensures the services provided to individuals but is a crucial tool to support reimbursement of services and a basis for research. Incomplete and improper documentation potentially may lead into a denial of payment for services as well as question’s the quality of care provided.Show MoreRelatedA Brief Note On The Electronic Health Records Essay1484 Words   |  6 Pagesdocumentation has been used throughout the healthcare to analyze care provided to a patient, communicate important information between healthcare providers and patients, and provide medical records that will help patients track their conditions. 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As a result of these pressures, HR managers seek to design reward structures that facilitate the organizations strategic goals and the goals of individual employees. Reward systems are very crucial for an organization (Maund, 2001). Rewards include systems, programs and practices that influence the actions of people. The purpose of reward systems is to provide a systematic way to deliver positive consequencesRead MoreBat1 Task 1 Essay1281 Words   |  6 PagesLegal and Ethical Considerations name Western Governors University Legal and Ethical Considerations A1. Addendum Addendum: Release of Information: Shadow Chart Policy Shadow charts should only contain copies of the original records. Shadow charts are maintained to assist ancillary departments in treating patients. An original record is created after each treatment for the primary record and a copy can be made for the shadow chart only for convenience in providing care

10 Principles of Economics - 6483 Words

10 Principles of Economics Supply and Demand * Supply and demand are inversely proportional: When supply rises, demand falls. For instance, when the housing market in a certain region is flooded with homes for sale, sellers drop the price to attract a buyer. However, single homes for sale in exclusive neighborhoods might have more potential buyers than sellers. In these instances, the price of the home rises. Inflation and Unemployment * Gregory Mankiw, Harvard Economics professor and author of Principles of Economics explains that society experiences a short-run trade-off with rising prices and unemployment: As the monetary supply expands and inflation occurs, unemployment rises. However, the Phillips curve indicates that in†¦show more content†¦Simply put, consumers try to get the most bang for their buck. Consumers make decisions to buy luxury, normal or inferior goods based on their income. Perfect Competition * The textbook, Business Economics states perfect competition occurs when there are many firms selling identical products. The firm accepts the market price, and is not a price-maker. Monopolies * Monopolies occur when firms are able to set the price of a specialized good or service due to limited or no competition. The firm is a price-maker and consumers must accept the price due to no alternatives. Oligopoly * Oligopolies are small groups of firms offering a similar good or service. Game theory suggests the price of these goods remains at or below a competitive price because each of the firm tries outbidding the other to gain market share. Examples of oligopolies include airlines and cable companies. Negative Externalities * Negative externalities are an external consequence of an action. Pollution and waste are good examples of a negative consequence caused by companies who pay no price for these consequences. The Ten Principles of Economics Part 1: The Four Principals of Decision-making Here I will break down the principals into three sections and briefly explain them from my point of view. The first four basic principles of economics are on how people make decisions on the individual level. Principal 1: People face trade-offs. 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I also do not believe that socialism is a bad thing either. I believe that both capitalism and socialism have a place amongst our society however I would lean towards capitalism because of an emphasis on utilizing resources to create more

Music and Learning Essay Example For Students

Music and Learning Essay Music enriches the lives of children and adults in many ways. The fine arts are proven to help children learn faster and easier. Musical training can stimulate different areas of the brain, such as the occipital lobes, which are located at the back of your head on the left side of the brain. Music can enhance a childs seniority capabilities, which is the function of both sensory and motor aspects working together as one. Scientists have studied the brains of children that are musicians and the brains of non-musicians. Many of the conclusions made result with Music goes not make children smarter, it simply stimulates areas of the brain that would otherwise be unused. (Parenthesizing) Some people claim music is able to help children learn. By noticing and studying musical patterns and rhythms, they are learning how to organize information quantitatively (Retarded), which is a common thing in any math class. Music improves the social skills of a child by helping them to communicate with others and be more social as they perform. People can express themselves through music, and it is shown when they perform. Music helps prepare dents for standardized tests because students are learning how to solve problems with the senses of vision, audio, and physicality, which serves as an advantage for those taking standardized tests. Music promotes motor capabilities and reasoning skills in a number of ways. For example, when watching a person perform, or by watching their own movements (motor), people can determine what is going to be played next (reasoning). When using motor skills for driving, listening to the music of the drivers choice can have negative affects and distract the driver. But if the music s unfamiliar or uninteresting, the skills of the driver increase as they are focusing on driving instead of focusing on the music. Music can help drivers focus, or it can distract them. Music can also be a big distraction to drivers as well. If a driver is listening to something that is familiar, the driver can lose focus on driving and puts that focus towards the music. Studies have shown that familiar music makes people counterproductive, rather than unfamiliar music making people more productive. Songs with lyrics can be counterproductive, because if a person is reading, the arson is focusing on the lyrics of the song rather than the text in the reading. When working out, if a person listens to really slow music, that person is most likely going to have a slow pace, which will equalize to beats each minute of the music. When listening an upbeat song, the song is moving at a faster pace, which means that the person will Join in on the same pace and be more productive. Overall, music is very helpful for children and adults to be productive and learning is easier as well.

Corporate Development During The Industrial Revolution Essays

Corporate Development During The Industrial Revolution The Standard Oil Company founded by John D. Rockefeller and the U.S. Steel Company founded by Andrew Carnegie. The Standard Oil Company and U.S. Steel Company were made successful in different ways due to the actions of their different owners. The companies differed in their labor relations, market control, and structural organization. In the steel industry, Carnegie developed a system known as vertical integration. This means that he cut out the middle man. Carnegie bought his own iron and coal mines because using independent companies cost too much and were inefficient. By doing this he was able to undersell his competetors because they had to pay the competitors they went through to get the raw materials. Unlike Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller integrated his oil business from top to bottom, his distinctive innovation in movement of American industry was horizontal. This meant he followed one product through all its stages. For example, rockrfeller controlled the oil when it w as drilled, through the refining stage, and he maintained control over the refining process turning it into gasoline. Although these two powerful men used two different methods of management their businesses were still very successful (Conlin, 425-426). Tycoons like Andrew Carnegie, ?the steel king,? and John D. Rockefeller, ?the oil baron,? exercised their genius in devising ways to circument competition. Although, Carnegie inclined to be tough-fisted in business, he was not a monopolist and disliked monopolistic trusts. John D. Rockefeller came to dominate the oil industry. With one upward stride after another he organized the Standard Oil Company, which was the nucleus of the great trust that was formed. Rockefeller showed little mercy. He believed primitive savagery prevailed in the jungle world of business, where only the fittest survived. He persued the policy of ?ruin or rule.? Rockefeller's oil monopoly did turn out a superior product at a relatively cheap price. Rockefeller belived in ruthless business, Carnegie didn't, yet they both had the most successful companies in their industries. (The American Pageant, pages 515-518) Rockefeller treated his customers in the same manner that Andrew Carnegie treated his workers: cruel and harsh. The Standard Oil Company desperately wanted every possible company to buy their products. Standard Oil used ruthless tactics when Rockefeller threatenedto start his own chain of grocery stores and put local merchants out of business if they did not buy oil from Standard Oil Company. Carnegie dealt with his workers with the same cold lack of diplomacy and consideration. Carnegie would encourage an unfriendly competition between two of his workers and he goaded them into outdoing one another. Some of his employees found working under Carnegie unbearable. These rivalries became so important to the employees that somedidn't talk to each other for years (McCloskkey, page 145). Although both Carnegie and Rockefeller created ex termely successsful companies, they both used unscrupulous methods in some aspect of their corporation building to get to the top. The success of the Standard Oil Company and U.S. Steel company was credited to the fact that their owners ran them with great authority. In this very competetive time period, many new businesses were being formed and it took talented businessmen to get ahead and keep the companies running and make the fortunes that were made during this period. Bibliography Titan

Free Essays on McDonalds

McDonald’s is a company that operates, franchises, services, and continually grows in the quick service restaurant business. According to McDonald’s, approximately 80% of McDonald’s restaurants are in eight markets: Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. McDonald’s has restaurants all over the world in 121 countries serving 46 million customers each day. McDonald’s also has other partner restaurants with brand names such as: Aroma Cafà ©, Boston Market, Chipotle and Donatos Pizzeria generating $1 billion in annual sales collectively. McDonald’s is comprised of many restaurants that are operated by the company, however they also have a large amount of franchises. Under the terms of the franchise arrangements, the franchisees are operated under joint-venture agreements. McDonald’s relies heavily on its franchising activities with approximately 70% of the restaurants being owned and operated by independent business people all over the world. The company is an equal opportunity franchiser with a proven 34% of franchiser and 70% of applicants being US minorities and women (McDonald’s, 2002). McDonald’s offers support in all areas of franchising from operations, training, advertising and marketing to real estate, construction, purchasing and equipment. In 2001, franchise sales amounted to 24,838 million dollars with company-operated sales and affiliated sales amounting to 15,297 million dollars (McDonald’s, 2002). McDonald’s also maintains a strong sense of social responsibility. They are responsible for many contributions to local community development, disaster relief, educational programs, worldwide recycling, resource conservation, and waste reduction programs and of course the Ronald McDonald House Charities. In 2001, McDonald’s has $1,419,800,000 for their outstanding efforts of goodwill. There are a lot of factors that make McDonald’s into a g... Free Essays on McDonald's Free Essays on McDonald's McDonald’s is a company that operates, franchises, services, and continually grows in the quick service restaurant business. According to McDonald’s, approximately 80% of McDonald’s restaurants are in eight markets: Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. McDonald’s has restaurants all over the world in 121 countries serving 46 million customers each day. McDonald’s also has other partner restaurants with brand names such as: Aroma Cafà ©, Boston Market, Chipotle and Donatos Pizzeria generating $1 billion in annual sales collectively. McDonald’s is comprised of many restaurants that are operated by the company, however they also have a large amount of franchises. Under the terms of the franchise arrangements, the franchisees are operated under joint-venture agreements. McDonald’s relies heavily on its franchising activities with approximately 70% of the restaurants being owned and operated by independent business people all over the world. The company is an equal opportunity franchiser with a proven 34% of franchiser and 70% of applicants being US minorities and women (McDonald’s, 2002). McDonald’s offers support in all areas of franchising from operations, training, advertising and marketing to real estate, construction, purchasing and equipment. In 2001, franchise sales amounted to 24,838 million dollars with company-operated sales and affiliated sales amounting to 15,297 million dollars (McDonald’s, 2002). McDonald’s also maintains a strong sense of social responsibility. They are responsible for many contributions to local community development, disaster relief, educational programs, worldwide recycling, resource conservation, and waste reduction programs and of course the Ronald McDonald House Charities. In 2001, McDonald’s has $1,419,800,000 for their outstanding efforts of goodwill. There are a lot of factors that make McDonald’s into a g...

In what ways has the economy of Azerbaijan been affected by Assignment

In what ways has the economy of Azerbaijan been affected by globalisation - Assignment Example Accordingly, the capital and financial market interactions in terms of exchange rate, interest rate, inflation and unemployment etc are also altered. Globalization has enormous effects on the economy of Azerbaijan as well. Azerbaijan is the Contiguous Transcontinental Presidential Republic situated in Caucasus region (United Nations, 2003). The economy of this province is characterised by inefficient public administration, high inflation and unemployment rate. In this paper, how globalization affects the economic sectors of Azerbaijan such as energy, import and export, transportation as well as science and technology will be critically analysed. Azerbaijan gained independence in the year of 1991. Since independence, the economy of the country has been transformed from centrally planned economy to a free market economy. Overtime, the country started establishing diplomatic relationship with other countries. Presently Azerbaijan is having steady trade relationship with 160 countries of five continents (United Nations, 2003). Naturally, occurrences related to globalization largely impact the economic sectors of Azerbaijan. Initially, the economy encountered a lot of problems such as high inflation and unemployment rate, unstable currency and very low GDP growth (International Monetary Fund, 2012). After 1995, particularly after joining treaties with foreign enterprises for oil supplies, the country started experiencing rapid growth. Such economic growth facilitated the economy to privatise a number of state enterprises; the national currency Manat became stabilised (The Economists, 2015). As the economy approached towards stab ility, many foreign investors got attracted and companies started investing foreign capital in order to tap lucrative business opportunities lying in the economy (International Monetary Fund, 2012). Hence, import-export accelerated. Inclusion of foreign direct investment helped the Azerbaijan economy to gear up its

Did Jesus Claim to be God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Did Jesus Claim to be God - Essay Example He was of divine origin, unlike common men, and had some qualities similar to those of God. His teachings and parables are elaborated in the Holy book Bible, which is very ancient. The authority of Bible is not very credible as it has been revised and altered by many people throughout history. Since there is no clear evidence and proof as for the writings of Bible, it cannot be authenticated completely. Did Jesus claim to be God? Jesus never claimed to be God, but he consistently proclaimed that his father was Almighty God. He explained to people that he was the servant of the Lord and loved him at his utmost. He does equate himself with God but does not claim to be God. Jesus never said that Joseph was his father, but pointed to God being his father. This is not necessarily because he is the son of God in reality, but it is because of the divine connection he shared with God. He loved God with pure heart and perceived divinity in everything he thought and acted. His life was complet ely dedicated to God and the living of life according to God’s will. By comparing himself with God, Jesus was attempting to get closer with his creator. Jesus worshiped God intensely and, if he were God, he would not have attempted to this act of praying. God does not need to pray to God, as this is illogical. And Jesus suggested to people to pray to Almighty, which proves that he is an ordinary man of flesh and blood. However, Jesus performed many miracles which demonstrated his divine potentialities absent in ordinary men. Jesus definitely is high above average person and he is closer to God because of his pure soul and highly divine qualities. Actually, Jesus did not refer to himself as God, but his personality and miracles made people around him believe that he was God on earth. However, Jesus is a blessed soul who was enlightened at an early age and shared some divine qualities of God. Did Jesus need to be born of a virgin? Opposite to ordinary people, Jesus was born to a virgin woman called Mary. This is the main reason for people to believe that Jesus is God. However, this does not indicate that he is God. It definitely shows that Jesus is different from others. He was born through a virgin because God wanted to show people that he was supernatural. The God wanted to reveal to people that he was more close to god and divine. The God wanted to declare to the world that he had sent a Messenger on his behalf to the earth. It is sure that Jesus was not a ordinary man; his birth, way of life and teachings are a proof to it. If Jesus were born as a normal man, there would not have been an authentication from God as to his divinity. He was chosen to be born through Virgin Mary as a sign of purity of his soul. His birth showed the immaterial nature of Jesus and his detachment from the physical world. He was a completely divine being and shared closeness with God in many ways. Since a man to enter earth definitely requires a mother, he was conceived in Ma ry’s womb, but the seed was definitely a pure contribution from God. Does the Bible have authority? Bible is indefinitely the holy book of Christians, but as far as its authority is concerned, less could be assured. It is a centuries old scripture and no one has definite idea whether the book has exact teachings, as suggested by Jesus. We do not know whether Bible is the correct word of Jesus, as there is no credible way to investigate

Typical Families Today Essay Example for Free

Typical Families Today Essay To even a casual observer of American society over the past five decades, drastic changes in the fundamental makeup of the American family and the perceived image of the American family are readily apparent. Many factors have contributed to the evolution of the American family;   along with those changes, specific positive and negative impacts on the familial unit as a whole have been posited by sociologists and other observers and commentators. For many, the evolution of the American family signals a greater freedom for the individual; for many others, the evolution of the American family merely records a devolving of traditional cultural values and social support systems to modes of cultural disintegration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although it is difficult to determine with any reliability, the nature and true composition of a traditional American family, the surface-level societal image that stands as the most predominant is that of the nuclear family, which, while maintaining close ties among the immediate family members; mother, father, children differs from European (and other) cultures where family is extended much further into more distant relatives and tribal associations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     At any rate, and despite the differences between the nuclear family and deeper historical models, the American family as nuclear stands as the single most definable image of family in the recent past. This model emphasized a patriarchal power-structure with the father as provider and protector and the mother as home-maker and care-giver. Just as many familial models from other cultures prioritize the family itself as the focal point of preservation and development, the American nuclear model places scant interest on individual growth or happiness. Family conflicts and interpersonal estrangement were regarded as obstacles to be overcome within the inter-dynamics of the family itself; individual happiness was desired or permitted in relation to its overall impact on the familys security and foundations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although the model of the nuclear family was likely never more than a functional abstraction for many people, for others, it did comprise a model by which to live and, indeed, sizable amounts of people did live their lives under the auspices of the nuclear family. In time, cultural evolution suggests that the restrictions on individual freedom, identity and ambition played a crucial role in the eventual breakdown of the nuclear family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Among other key elements, The sexual revolution, womens liberation, relaxation of divorce laws, and greater mobility have been cited as forces which   are fracturing the traditional family structure, and these fractures are typically viewed as quite serious and with long-lasting consequences. In considering the sexual revolution it must be noted that this concept extends not only to unmarried couples with children, but to homosexual couples, childless couples, and those who are involved in some combination of the above. The opening of individual freedoms relative to sexual behavior has plunged the U.S into a rapidly changing family relationship landscape. Every assumption made about the family structure has been challenged, from the outer boundaries of single mothers raising out-of-wedlock children to gay couples having or adopting children to grandparents raising their grandchildren (Lebey, 2001, p. 20).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the increase in womens rights and legal recourses resulted in a rising number of divorces which contributed to the evolution of the American family. Single mothers and divorced couples rose in prominence among the statistical realities of how people actually lived rather than how Americans would like to imagine they lived. The evolution in traditional family structure started slow but maintained a steady pressure:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fault lines in Americans family structure were widening throughout the last 40 years of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the 20th century. The cracks became evident in the mid 1970s when the divorce rate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   doubled. According to a 1999 Rutgers University study, divorce has risen 30% since   Ã‚   1970; the marriage rate has fallen faster; and just 38% of Americans consider themselves   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   happy in their married state, a drop from 53% 25 years ago. Today, 51% of all marriages   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   end in divorce.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Lebey, 2001, p. 20)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The basic shift is one from prioritizing the family, itself, as an end to be attained and the idea of the individual as the most important factor in developing life-relationships, career paths, sexual orientation, and lifestyle. Whereas by compulsion under the nuclear family, those family members who felt alienated or disregarded by their families were expected to deal with their alienation within the context of the family itself and certainly not by leaving the family, out-right, or out-right rejecting the familys primacy. If we grant Lebeys assertion that the four main societal changes [that have] occurred that have had an enormous impact on the traditional family structure. The sexual revolution, womens liberation movement, states relaxation of divorce laws, and mobility of American families then we should also take special note that her latter point: mobility of families and family members has probably played a larger role than any other single component in the actualization of the modern family.   (Lebey, 2001, p. 20)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     If our culture tends to focus on the individual, or, at most, on the nuclear family, downplaying the benefits of extended families, though their role is vital in shaping our lives it also protects and preserves individuals freedom of choice and freedom of lifestyle far above the sanctity or preservation of the family. Mobility is the most direct expression of individual freedom: The notion of moving on whenever problems arise has been a time-honored American concept. Too many people would rather cast aside some family member than iron out the situation and keep the relationship alive (Lebey, 2001, p. 20).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mobility is not always a matter of choice but is often a matter of personal necessity driven on by employment conditions or other economic factors. Statistically, during the 10 years from 1989 to 1999, more than 5,000,000 families were relocated one or more times by their employers and this relocation is often driven by economic advancement and/or a safer place to raise children. From March, 1996, to March, 1997, 42,000,000 Americans, or 16% of the population, packed up and moved from where they were living to another location(Lebey, 2001, p. 20).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition to mobility, another aspect of lacing such a large emphasis on individual happiness and orientation is the idea that individual happiness is not only the paramount objective for personal decision making and interpersonal relationships, but that this idea of happiness should be also considered nearly inviolable. That is, the individual is socially conditioned to believe that any state that is less than happy is somehow abnormal, undesirable and should be remedied as soon as possible by whatever means: For at least 20 years, the pharmaceutical industry has learned how to cash in on the American obsession with feeling good by hyping mood drags to rewire the brain circuitry for happiness through the elimination of sadness and depression and this idea of constant happiness of course extends to ones marriages and familial relationships.   (Lebey, 2001, p. 20)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If one begins to regard individual happiness and individual ambition as the primary points of consideration in resolving inter-personal conflicts and especially inter-familial relationships, it is far more likely that breaks rather than repairations will be the result when issue of personal alienation or the restriction of self-expression and lifestyle intrude upon familial relationships. The overall decrease in an individuals willingness to work out tehir problems whatever they are and wherever they find themselves, along wiht a corresponding increase in the idea   of mobility, freedom, disposable jobs and relationship, brings about conditions which highly favor the radical evolution of the American family from its not-so-distant nuclear image.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The central question regarding the societal impact of the evolution of the American family on the societys well-being as a whole pivots on the idea of individual vs. collective rights. In other words, the evolution away form traditional family models toward those which encourage and encompass a much larger degree of individuality has resulted in a breakdown of the traditional family but also a breakthrough in individual freedoms and liberties. Whether or not the cult of the individual will provide a sufficient enough   substitution for nuclear family values in terms of providing for a healthy, growing, and just society remains to be seem. What is obvious is that traditional family models: one man, one women with fairly rigid gender roles and social mores is, indeed, a thing of the past.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The increasing number of non-married couples with children, of gay and lesbian couples with children, of single-parent families, and other non-traditional models is a highly visible indication of the social changes now occurring in America. No less visible or impacting is the rise of individuality and individual-orientation in American society which has both occasioned the breakdown of traditional family models and been enabled by the breakdown of traditional social mores and images of the typical American family.                   Reference Lebey, B. (2001, September). AMERICAN FAMILIES Are Drifting Apart. USA Today (Society   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   for the Advancement of Education), 130, 20.

The Perfect Gesture :: essays research papers

The Perfect Gesture. The perfect form football tackle, that is the perfect gesture. The person that made this gesture was Gary Kmiec. I witnessed this event for the first time, Labor Day, at the junior varsity football game against North Park College. The day was hot and humid, like a regular Chicago summer. The North Park Viking's field was hardly appealing to the eye. The field was one of those contraptions of a baseball/football field combination. It was the third quarter of a very intense game, the score was 8-6 we were winning. Both teams were relying on their defenses to stop the opposing offense and in our case to score. From what I have heard through the â€Å"grape vine† is that the offense of North Central isn't the greatest, but we have one of the best defenses. The stands, like every other junior varsity game, had only a handful of people in them. Most of the die-hard fans were either family or girlfriends. Unlike the North Park Vikings, who suited up over 60 players in their royal blue, our junior varsity team had suited up about 29 players total. Out of those 29 select few, only 13 were on the defensive side of the ball. North Park was on offense. The cardinal defense stood strong. It was second down and North Park needed five more yards to get the first down. I was not in the game at this time so I had an exceptional view. The Viking quarterback dropped back 2 steps then he handed the ball off to the half back. Kmiec, like he had always been taught, mirrored the half back shuffling parallel with him. Kmiec accelerated towards the ball carrier. Then it happened. The perfect gesture, the perfect tackle. This was it. Kmiec had reached top speed when he met the ball carrier. When they met, Kmiec placed his right shoulder pad in the gut of the running back, making him lose his breath. Kmiec then wrapped his hands around the back of the ball carrier and pinned him to the ground. His helmet hit the ball directly, causing the pigskin to fly free from the running backs grip. Our free safety, Bob Goins, was right behind Kmiec and recovered the fumble on the North Park 25 yard line. The North Central crowd cheered and the North Central sidelines were in an uproar.

Biol 130 First Midterm Notes

Unit 1 – Introduction to the Cell Robert Hooke – built the first microscope (30x magnification); viewed slices of cork called cellula (little rooms). Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek – worked with glass huge improvement in quality of lenses nearly 300x magnification became possible first to observe: * single-celled organisms â€Å"animalcules† * protists from pond water * bacteria from his mouth – â€Å"father of microbiology† * blood cells * banded pattern in muscle cells * sperm from †¦ 1830s – Compound microscope – improved magnification and resolution and allowed visualization of objects less than 1 ? . 1000-1500x magnification Beginning of Cell Theory Robert Brown (botanist) – noticed that every plant cell contained a round structure called it ‘kernel’-nucleus Matthias Schleiden (another botanist) – all plant tissues are composed of cells; embryonic plant always arose from a single cell Theodor Schwann (zoologist) – similar observations in animal cells; recognition of structural similarities btw plants and animals! * Cell Theory formulated by Schwann Cell Theory 1. all organisms consist of one or more cells 2. he cell is the basic unit of structure for all organisms 3. added 20 years later: all cells arise only from pre-existing cells fact (scientific) – an attempt to state our best current understanding, based on observations and experiments(valid only until revised or replaced) Steps in Scientific Method 1. make observations 2. use inductive reasoning to develop tentative explanation (hypothesis) 3. make predictions based on your hypothesis 4. make further observations or design and carry out controlled experiments to test your hypothesis 5. nterpret your results to see if they support your hypothesis Theory – a hypothesis that has been tested critically under many different conditions andby many different investigators . using a variety of different approa ches. By the time an explanation is regarded as a theory it is widely accepted by most scientists in the cell * the â€Å"solid ground† of science: evolution, germ theory, cell theory *If a theory is thoroughly tested and confirmed over many years by such large numbers of investigators that there is no doubt of its validity †¦ it may eventually be regarded as a law.Gravity, laws of thermodynamics, laws that govern behaviour of gases ‘Strands’ of Cell Biology 13 cytology 1600s Hooke looks at cork Leeuwenhoek looks at lots of things 1800s Brown notes nuclei bio-chemistry synthesis of urea in lab fermentation done by cells! glycolysis Krebs cycle every cell comes from a cell Schleiden & Schwann formulate cell theory electron microscopy stains & dyes genetics Mendel, pea plants DNA chromosomes chromosome theory 1930s DNA double helix DNA sequencing Dolly the sheep! nano-technology! genetic code Light Microscopy:Bright field – light passes through specimen , contrast is slow and specimen is hard to see Phase contrast – contrast is changed by changing light in microscope DIC – uses optical modifications to change contrast between cell and background – due to density differential Staining – stain used to visualize cell and components, only some stains can be used on living cells 14 bright field phase contrast DIC unstained (sperm cells) stained blood cells tissue – small intestine Fluorescent Microscopy – fluorescent dyes bind to protein or DNA to see where they are in cells – tracks movement Electron Microscopy(Scanning & Transmission):SEM – scan surface of specimen to form image by detecting electrons from outer surface. Good surface images TEM – forms image from electrons passing through specimen therefore fine details of internal organelles 16 SEM TEM Basic Properties of Cells: * are highly complex and organized * atoms molecules macromolecules (organelles ) enclosed in plasma membrane * use the same ‘genetic program’ Central Dogma * DNA RNA protein * are capable of reproducing themselves * must first replicate genetic material acquire and use energy (â€Å"bioenergetics†) and carry out a variety of chemical reactions (â€Å"cellular metabolism†) * have many processes that are highly conserved at the molecular level * membrane structure, genetic code, ATP synthesizing enzymes, actin filaments, eukaryotic flagella, †¦ * engage in many mechanical activities * transport of materials in/out, within * assembly and disassembly of structures * motility / movement * respond to environmental signals * move away or toward stimuli * respond to hormones, growth factors, etc * are capable of self-regulationâ€Å"homeostasis† most evident when control systems break down; defects in DNA replication, DNA repair, cell cycle control Two Classes of Cells – karyon = nucleus Prokaryotic Cells: lack of nucleus, NO CYTOSKELET ON(very small), membrane bound organelles. Mostly unicellular. Bacteria and Archaea. Single, circular strand of DNA(fewer proteins). Cell wall in addition to PM 1-10 uM in diameter. 2 types: 1. Eubacteria – all have cells walls except for mycoplasma(resistant to antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis). Mycoplasma(smallest) Cyanobacteria (largest and most complex). 2.Archaeabacteria – all have cell walls and are known as extermophiles, occupy broad range of habitats, halophiles=salty, acidophiles=acid, thermophiles= hot. Eukaryotic Cells: 10x larger than prokaryotic cells, membrane bound nucleus/organelles. More complex DNA due to histones/proteins. 4 groups: 1. Protists- very diverse group – mostly single cells; algae, water molds, slime molds, protozoa 2. Fungi – single cell(yeast) or multi-cellular(mushrooms) and have cell walls. Heterotrophs; depend on external source of organic compounds 3. Plant cells- multi-cellular and have cell walls. . Anima ls- multi-cellular, no cell walls and are heterotrophs Cytoplasm – everything between plasma membrane and nuclear membrane, includes all membrane-bound organelles (except nucleus) Cytosol – only fluid component Endomembrane system – internal membranes that are either in direct contact or connected via transfer of vesicles (sacs of membrane). including: nuclear envelope / membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles Nucleus – stores genetic information Endomembrane System – creates intracellular compartments with different functions.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER; rough, smooth), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes. Mitochondria – generate energy to power the cell Chloroplasts – capture energy from sunlight, convert to carbohydrate Cytoskeleton – regulates cell shape, movements of materials within the cell, movement of the cell itself Flow of Traffic in EMS – Rough ER: synthesis of proteins for – ex port (secretion) – insertion into membranes – lysosomes Golgi apparatus: collection, packaging & distribution Lysosomes * cell ‘stomachs’ have enzymes that can digest †¦ * all 4 classes of biological macromolecules worn-out organelles (mitochondria replaced every 10 days) * material brought into cell by phagocytosis Phagocytosis – plasma membrane engulfs smaller molecule and then called phagosome. Lysosome takes it in and digests, small particles are releases into the cytoplasm. Autophagy – lysosome digests a damaged organelle, small particles are released into cytosol. mitochondria (all eukaryotic cells) and chloroplasts (plant cells): * contain DNA that encodes some (but not all) of their own proteins * have unusual double layers of membranesOrigin of Eukaryotic Cells: Endosymbiont Theory * once believed that eukaryotes evolved gradually, organelles becoming more and more complex * now accepted that early eukaryotes originated as preda tors * certain organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts) evolved from smaller prokaryotes engulfed by larger cell * later chloroplasts and the ability to perform photosynthesis Symbiosis – Mutual Advantage advantage to host cell: * aerobic respiration (aerobic bacteria mitochondria) * photosynthesis (cyanobacteria chloroplasts) advantage to bacteria: * protected environment supply of carbon compounds from host cell’s other prey Evidence Supporting Endosymbiont Theory mitochondria and chloroplasts †¦ * are similar size to bacteria, reproduced by fission like bacteria * have double membranes, consistent with engulfing mechanism * have their own ribosomes, which resemble those of prokaryotes rather than eukaryotes in terms of size, composition and sensitivity to antibiotics * have their own genomes, which are organized like those of bacteria last but not least: * are genetically similar to proposed ‘parent’ bacteria rather than ukaryotic cells Cytoskeleton important in: * cell shape * cell motility * movement / position of organelles * movement of materials within cell * movement of chromosomes during mitosis Cytoplasm in a living cell is never static * cytoskeleton is constantly being taken apart and rebuilt * organelles and vesicles are racing back and forth * can cross the cell in ~ 1 second * unattached proteins moving randomly, but rapidly * can visit every corner of the cell within a few seconds * contents of cytosol are in constant thermal motionCommon to all cells: * selectively permeable plasma membrane * genetic code; mechanism of transcription and translation * ATP for the transfer of energy and metabolic pathways Model Organisms 45 Unit 2a – Intro to Cellular Chemistry Most Common Elements in Living Organisms: * C H O N – make up 96% – also P and S are common too * Exist as complex macromolecules and simpler forms like water and carbon dioxide nucleus – dense core in centre, consists of protons and neutrons electrons – continually orbit the nucleus # of protons – defining feature of an element = atomic number – # protons + # neutrons = mass of an atom = mass number – by default, an atom is ‘neutral’, with # protons = # electrons – electrons influence reactivity of an atom †¦ Atomic mass = atomic number + # of neutrons (electrons are neglected because mass is so small) Isotopes – same number of protons but different number of neutrons in the same element Anion – gain electron and are negatively charged Cation – lose electron and are positively chargedOutermost ‘valence’ shell influences an atom’s reactivity * electrons in outermost shell valence electrons * unpaired valance electrons determine the number of bonds an atom can make * atoms with filled valance shell = most stable, atoms that are closest to filling are most reactive * elements abundant in organisms have at least one u npaired valence electron Some Definitions: covalent bonds – two or more atoms share pairs of valence electrons * strong bonds of biological systems non-covalent bonds, including * ionic bonds * hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) * hydrophobic interactions olecule – group of atoms held together by energy in a stable association compound – molecule composed of two or more different types of atoms Types of Covalent Bonds * electrons shared ‘equally’ * non-polar covalent bond * can be single (like H2), double (O2) or even triple, depending on number of electrons shared * electrons not shared equally * polar covalent bond * one of the atoms has a stronger pull on the electrons than the other * pull on electrons = electronegativity * water is the most abundant molecule in biological organisms * human body is ~70% water water as a solvent can dissolve more types of molecules than other molecule known * the polarity of water is key to its role in biology hydrogen bon ding – electrical attraction between electronegative atom and partial positive of hydrogen hydrophobic – no affinity for water – â€Å"water fearing† hydrophilic – affinity for water – â€Å"water loving† Acid-base Reaction substance that gives up (donates) protons acid (increases [H+] in solution) substance that accepts protons base (decreases [H+] in solution) chemical reaction that involves transfer of protons acid-base reaction * most olecules act as either an acid or a base * water can be both (both gives up and accepts protons) weak acid: very few molecules dissociated (acetic acid, water) strong acid: readily gives up protons (hydrochloric acid) when pH = pKa species is 50% ionized Carbon is the most important element in biology carbon atoms give biomolecules their shape but other atoms attached to carbons determine their reactivity * critical H, N, O containing attachments called functional groups *learn orgo functional groups for this courseMacromolecules * large, organized molecules that are typically created by polymerization * biological macromolecules (biomolecules) provide the structure and carry out the activities of a cell 4 groups: * carbohydrates(polysaccharides) * lipids(fats) * proteins * nucleic acids * monomers of groups are different – chemical reactions used to make the chains are similar Overview of Macromolecules 3 Proteins – more functions than any other group of macromolecule * enzymes – catalysis; accelerate chemical reactions transport – through cell membranes, in circulation * support – cytoskeleton, fibres of cartilage, hair, nails * signalling / regulatory – hormones, membrane proteins, intracellular messengers * movement- of the cell itself – contractile proteins, flagella – within the cell – motor proteins * defense – antibodies, complement proteins Proteins are Polymers * amino acids are connected in linear polymers of a specific sequence * 20 genetically encoded amino acid monomers to pick from * string of amino acids (AAs) = peptide or polypeptide polypeptide folded and coiled into a specific conformation = protein * sometimes 2 or more peptide chains (subunits) combine to form mature, functional protein Amino Acid Structure AAs are ionized under physiological conditions ionization increases solubililty, facilitates interactions with each other and other solutes, increases reactivity (zwitterions) 7 non-ionized ionized R group unique to each AA oxygens tend to pull electrons away, making it easy to lose proton gains a proton Amino Acid Side Chains – R Groups: * nonpolar – hydrophobic R groups no charged or electronegative atoms to form H bonds * insoluble in water * R groups bury themselves with the peptide chain to ‘hide’ from water * polar side chains – soluble in water * uncharged – but partial charges can form H-bonds * charged – gr oups containing acids or bases – highly soluble in water AA are linked together by covalent peptide bonds: carbon from carboxyl group is linked to N terminus of amino group. R groups and central C’s do not participate in the bond. Condensation Reaction – making the chain Hydrolysis – breaking the chain Polypeptide chain: side chains extend from peptide-bonded backbone * chain is flexible – can rotate at single bonds on either side of peptide bonds * so side chains are not all projecting to one side! * chains can be from 2-3 to thousands of AAs in length * backbone is directional, convention is to number AA ‘residues’ starting at N terminus this is the primary sequence Sickle Cell Anemia – disease in which red blood cells are abnormally shaped. Caused by single point mutation which results in substitution of single amino acid in one chain of hemoglobin protein Protein Structure:Primary Structure – unique sequence of amino acids Secondary Structure – Folding into elements of structure, hydrogen bonding between amino acids(R groups not involved). 2 shapes: alpha helix and beta pleated sheet(parallel and antiparallel). * learn more Tertiary Structure- interactions of elements of secondary structure forming a global fold, folded into these unique shapes by ionic bonds (electrostatic),hydrogen bonds, disulphide bridges, hydrophobic interaction, van der waals – dipole-dipole(all non-covalent except for S-S). Order of amino acids determines final shape.Maintain globular shape even if very weak. Quaternary Structure – more than one polypeptide chain put together to form the final functional protein, linked by covalent and non-covalent interactions. Protein Domain – segment of polypeptide that forms a compact, stable and independently folding structure. Often the building blocks for larger, more complex proteins. Disulfide bonds * covalent stabilization of protein structure found i n secreted proteins (destined for a more hostile extracellular environment) * formed in ER (oxidizing environment)Once folded, do proteins ever unfold? changes in physical or chemical conditions (pH, salt concentration, temperature) disruption of H-bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, etc that maintain the protein’s shape protein ‘denatures’ or unfolds Possible to renature Do proteins ever fold incorrectly? any mutation that leads to a missing or incorrect amino acid can lead to incorrectly folded protein WHY 32 Possible outcomes: mutation – leads to incorrectly folded protein * protein never functions properly loss of function protein folds properly at first but unfolds under certain conditions eventually loss of function * protein misfolds AND is deposited in insoluble aggregates within cell * loss of function and disruption of other aspects of cell activity * many human diseases now known to be associated with misfolded proteins . Alzheimers, cystic f ibrosis, type II diabetes, retinitis pigmentosa, Parkinsons, Creutzfeldt-Jakob, some cancers *read about catalysts and enzymes in Janelle’s notes, page 8-9 Nucleic Acids: Information Polymers * deoxy ribo nucleic acid (DNA) sequence of subunits in DNA polymer directs RNA synthesis * ribo nucleic acid (RNA) * RNA directs ordering of AAs in a peptide chain * information stored as DNA sequences enables living organisms to pass on hereditary information * also allows each cell to pass on hereditary information to the next generation of cells Monomers of Nucleic Acids: Deoxyribo nucleotides – phosphate + deoxyribose + nitrogenous base(A,C, G, or T) Ribo nucleotides – phosphate + ribose + base (A,C,G, or U) Nucleic acids are linear (unbranched) polymers of nucleotides * each nucleotide consists of three parts: * a nitrogenous base a (5-carbon) pentose sugar * a phosphate group Purines = A&GPyramidines= C,T and U * Ribose + base = nucleoside * Ribose + base + phosphate = nucleotide Functions of Nucleotides * monomeric units of RNA and DNA * important signal molecules within cells * cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) * important agents in energy transfer reactions * cleave off phosphate group to release stored energy * act as coenzymes – organic non-protein molecules required for enzyme function * usually adenine-containing nucleotides combined with B vitamins 8 condensation reaction 5’ end – beginning of chain. Chains always built 5’ 3’.Look at above example phosphate group is 5’ 3’ end – where new bases can be added Polymerization rxn’s are endergonic: * making phosphodiester bonds requires energy * energy comes from addition of 2 phosphate groups. * Activated nucleotides = nucleotide triphophates The most famous phosphorylated nucleotide †¦ adenosine triphosphate = ATP 11 adenine 4’ 5’ 5 6 1 2 3 9 4 8 7 1’ 3’ 2’ O P CH2 O O O– P O O O– P O –O O– OH OH O NH2 N N N N ribose adenine + ribose (= adenosine) Secondary Structure of DNA: two strands of DNA align in ‘antiparallel’ arrangement with bases facing inwards. H-bonds form between bases. P P P P P P P P C C G G AA T T P O O O O O O O O O O O C G OH P Note: 3 H-bonds between C and G, 2 between A and T. Only space in the sugar phosphate backbone is for Pyramidine and Purine to bond together. Features of DNA Double Helix * stabilized by H-bonds between complementary bases and hydrophobic interactions between bases * entire molecule water-soluble because charged phosphates backbone face outward * major and minor grooves are significant in regulation of gene transcription Higher Order DNA Structure: DNA molecules can adopt higher order structure – Allows for compact packaging and strict regulation of gene expression RNA vs DNA like DNA: sugar-phosphate backbone covalently linked by phosphodiester bonds * 4 different bases unl ike DNA: * uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) * pairing is A-U, C-G * sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose * hydroxyl group makes ribose much more reactive * RNA is much less stable than DNA Secondary Structure of RNA: like DNA: * H-bonds form between complementary base pairs unlike DNA: * most of the time, this base-pairing is between bases on the same strand * leads to formation of ‘stem and loop’ structures with single-stranded regions and double-stranded antiparallel regions * H-bonding is spontaneous, stabilizes the molecule final molecule is single-stranded * Complex folds can result in some RNA having catalytic activity Carbohydrates * Group of molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio: (CH2O)n Only monomers are in this ratio, oligomers you lose water * Monomer=monosaccharide * Dimer=disaccharide * Trimer=trisaccharide/oligosaccharide Types: 1. Monosaccharides – simple sugars 2. Oligosaccharides – small chains (oligo=few) * Attached to proteins – glycoproteins * Attached to lipids – glycolipids 3. Polysaccharides – very long sugar chains Typical Structural Features of Sugar Monomers: carbonyl group (either ketone or aldehyde) * lots of -OH groups * vary in length of carbon skeleton (C3, C5, C6, †¦) – triose, pentose, hexose * isomeric forms (glucose, fructose, galactose) * identical chemical groups arranged differently * monosaccharides often form rings in solution Isomers – same atoms, different arrangements structural isomer – identical groups but bonded to different carbons stereo (optical) isomer – identical groups bonded to same carbons but in different orientations sixteen different hexose structures possible, all with formula C6H12O6 C OH C OH OH H C OH H HO C H C O H C OH H H C OH H C OH H C OH H HO C H H C OH H structural isomer stereo- isomer H C C O HO C H H C OH H C OH H HO C H H C OH H fructose glucose galactose *arrangement of hydrox yl groups make a big difference in biological function Disaccharide – 2 sugar monomer: * glucose + fructose = sucrose(table sugar) * glucose + lactose = lactose * glucose + glucose = maltose Formation of disaccharides by condensation reactions. monomers are linked when C1 of one monosaccharide binds to a C on another – often C4 geometry of bond different depending on hether OH group of C1 is in ? or ? position which C of other sugar is involved in linkage 7 C1, ? C4 ?-glucose ?-glucose maltose, ? -1,4 glycosidic bond ?-galactose ?-glucose lactose, ? -1,4 glycosidic bond (glucose has flipped over) C1, ? C4 Polymerization to build Polysaccharides starch both are storage forms for energy starch – plants; glycogen – animals both consist of ? -glucose monomers linked by ? -1,4 bonds both coil into a helix (due to geometry of linkages) starch is mixture of unbranched amylose and branched amylopectin glycogen is highly branched lycogen Structural Polysaccharide in Plants: Cellulose 9 polymer of ? -glucose, joined by ? -1,4 linkages each glucose is flipped relative to adjacent ones allows for H-bonding between adjacent strands extremely stable most abundant organic molecule on earth parallel strands joined by H-bonds Structural Polysaccharide in Animals: Chitin a component of cell walls of fungi, exoskeletons of arthropods (insects, crustaceans), radulas of molluscs, beaks of cephalopods second most abundant organic molecule on earth like cellulose, joined by ? 1,4 linkages but rather than glucose, monomer is N-acetylglucosamine like cellulose, also strengthened by H-bonding btw strands 10 Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria: Peptidoglycan component of bacterial cell walls the most complex CHO so far! two different alternating monomers linked by ? -1,4 bonds chain of amino acids attached to one of the sugars – peptide bonds instead of H-bonds (stronger) Significance of how monosaccharides are linked: * ? -1-4 linkages of starch and glycogen readily hydrolyzed * ? 1-4 linkages in structural polysaccharides very resistant to enzymatic degradation For example: enzymes that digest cellulose (cellulase) produced only by certain classes of bacteria, fungi and protozoa Difference between glycosidic bonds from peptide and phosphodiester bonds: in common: * condensation reactions different: * peptide and phosphodiester bonds always occur at the same position within their monomers * each sugar monomer has several hydroxyl groups, and geometry of glycosidic bonds is highly variable Functions of Carbohydrates: Structural: * cellulose, chitin and peptidoglycanCell-cell recognition: * membrane proteins covalently bonded to oligosaccharides Energy Storage * ? -1,4 –linkages of starch and glycogen are readily hydrolyzed to release stored energy Lipids * group of carbon-containing compounds that are largely non-polar / hydrophobic * significant proportion of a given lipid molecule is hydrocarbon * the only macromolecul e that is not a polymer major groups of lipids in cells: * fats / oils – energy storage * sterols * cholesterol – membrane component * steroids – hormones * * Phospholipids * major component of biological membranesFats (Triacylglycerols, Triglycerides) * form that fat is stores in apidose tissie * glycerol with 3 fatty acids attached * the link between glycerol and fatty acid = ester bond: condenstation rxn (liberates water) * hydrophobic * fatty acid(carboxylic acid with long hydrocarbon tail) Saturated Fatty Acid – have maximum number of hydrogen atoms on each atom; straight and flexible because of only single bonds Unsaturated Fatty Acid – contain at least 1 double bond. The double bond is rigid and creates a kink in the chain. The rest of the chain however is free to rotate about C-C bonds.Cis – H on the same side of double bond; don’t solidify easily Trans – H on the opposite side of the double bond. Hydrogenation – making a fat saturated/more solid at room temperature to improve shelf life therefore less healthy. Sterols – group of steroids based on cholesterol(important component of cell membrane) Phospholipids : * 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate group(polar head group) * Amphipathic = hydrophilic and hydrophilic regions – their most important feature with respect to biology Micelles – sphere with hydrophobic tails ‘hiding’ in centre . Can only occur with relatively short tails Lipid Bilayer:Universal Structure for all Biological Membranes composition varies with: type of organism (prokaryote vs animal vs plant vs †¦) type of cell within organism (muscle, liver, sperm, egg, †¦) type of membrane within cell (plasma membrane, Golgi, ER) inner versus outer layer different patches or ‘domains’ within a particular membrane Fig 11-4 two closely apposed sheets of lipids, studded with proteins lipids serve as permeability barrier protei ns perform most of the functions carbohydrates (sugars) attached to protein and lipids in a non-random manner *all membrane lipids are amphipathic Lipid bilayers form spontaneously: hydrophobic molecules would exclude water, clustering together to minimize energy cost of organizing water molecules * form large droplets or surface film * amphipathic molecules are subject to conflicting forces * solved by formation of bilayer * energetically most favourable stable, spontaneous * lipid bilayers are †¦ * closed – no free edges * self-sealing * important feature for cell fusion, budding, locomotion Fluid Mosaic Model * The plasma membrane is described to be fluid because of its hydrophobic integral components such as lipids and membrane proteins that move laterally or sideways throughout the membrane.That means the membrane is not solid, but more like a ‘fluid'. * phospholipids are constantly moving spinning in place; travelling laterally within ‘leaflet’ * phospholipids are occasionally ‘flipped’ to the opposite leaflet during membrane synthesis but they rarely ‘flop’ back * even proteins cruise slowly through the membrane! Membrane fluidity – how easily lipid molecules move within a membrane leaflet Alignment of phospholipid tails * tightly packed tails membrane more viscous, less fluid * freely moving tails higher fluidity What aspects of phospholipid composition influence this? length of fatty acids * from 14-24 carbons, 18-20 carbons most common * degree of saturation of fatty acids # double bonds * typically one saturated fatty acid and one with one or more double bonds Cholesterol: * under physiological conditions, cholesterol makes membrane stiffer – less fluid * cholesterol can make up to 50% of plasma membrane lipid in some animal cells Regulation of Membrane Fluidity: – fluid state must be maintained for normal cell function strategies for maintaining membrane fluidity: * chang e composition of membranes * alter phospholipids desaturate fatty acids (to deal with cold) eg cold water vs warm water fish * change length of FA chains (yeast, bacteria) * adjust amounts of cholesterol (animals) these mechanisms have been demonstrated in: * pond fish dealing with dramatic day / night temp differences * cold-resistant plants * extremophile bacteria living in hot springs * winter wheat preparing for autumn ^ polyunsaturated FAs * sperm reduce their cholesterol just before fertilization †¦ Functions of Lipids: * storage of chemical energy * signal molecules * vitamins * wax coating on leaves * biological membranes

America s Choice 1960 Presidential Campaign - 904 Words

History`s choice-1960 Presidential campaign What respectable person would think of the best choice for president? There are plenty of classical case of presidential campaigns in past years. In 1960, the Soviet Union and the United States were in the Cold War. Nevertheless, civil rights and the fight against apartheid and other issues cause a lot of trouble. According to these historical background, there are two politicos began to compete for president: John F. Kennedy, a young and dynamic Massachusetts senator; Nixon, an experienced members of congress. Compared with Kennedy and Nixon before the presidential campaign, Kennedy not only the lack of rich diplomatic experience, but also in a disadvantaged situation of his identity of Catholics. However, Kennedy won the presidential campaign by his unique advantage. There are several differences and similarities between Kennedy and Nixon that cause the final result of the presidential campaign. Religion entered the campaign in 1960 as 19 28 and it s importance can not be underestimated. Kennedy and Nixon have a different religion. Many citizens voted for their religion rather than their politics. In the article, author shows us that some protestant democrats supported Nixon for religious reasons. As a catholic, Kennedy didn`t in a dominant position. However, Kennedy had disposed of the religious issue. On September 12, Kennedy agreed to appear before the Ministerial Association of Houston, Texas, to present his viewsShow MoreRelatedThe Life of John Fitzgerald Kennedy Essay948 Words   |  4 Pageshad, in doing this, the greatest impact on religion than any modern president. John F. Kennedy was only the second Catholic to run for president in the history of the United State (Denison). According to Jim Denison, â€Å"from the beginning of the campaign, his (Kennedy’s) Catholic commitment was a hotly-debated subject. 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